SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF TENDENCY TO TEENAGE PREGNANCY AMONG STUDENTS IN DELTA CENTRAL SENATORIAL DISTRICT OF DELTA STATE

SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS AS CORRELATES OF TENDENCY TO TEENAGE PREGNANCY AMONG STUDENTS IN DELTA CENTRAL SENATORIAL DISTRICT OF DELTA STATE

Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance and Counselling

Faculty of Education

University of Port Harcourt

by: Usesiri, Martins Omamuyovwi Goodluck

 

 

ABSTRACT

The study investigated socio-demographic factors as correlates of tendency to teenage pregnancy among secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State. A sample of 825 female senior secondary school students from a population of 16888 was used for the study. Simple random sampling and proportionate stratified sampling was used to compose the sample. Four research questions were answered while four corresponding null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. Instrument for data collection was titled Socio-Demographic Factors and Tendency to Teenage Pregnancy Questionnaire (SDFTTPQ). The instruments were validated by the research’s supervisor and experts in Measurement and Evaluation. The reliability of the instruments were estimated using Cronbach alpha reliability method of internal consistency. Research questions 1 to 3 were answered using Pearson product moment correlation while research question 4 was answered using mean and standard deviation. Hypotheses 1 to 3 were tested with special p-value for significance of r-values while Hypothesis 4 was tested using independent sample t-test. Findings revealed among others that there is significant relationship between parental care and tendency to teenage pregnancy among secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State. It was also revealed that there is significant relationship between parent-child communication and tendency to teenage pregnancy among secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State. Based on the findings, it was recommended among others that Parents should learn to communicate regularly with their girl child especially on sex related topics.

 

Keywords: Teenage Pregnancy, Parent-child communication, Mass media.

Introduction

Adolescent pregnancy has been a worldwide issue that needs to be confronted to mitigate the problems of maternal adolescent childbearing, especially in the third world countries. In fact, it has emerged to be one of the major public health problems in South Asia (Raj, 2010) and in Western Europe (Seamarck as cited in Jordan and Marc, 2016). It is reported in India that adolescent pregnancy is one of the serious health threat for women aged 15-19 years old (Patra, 2016). In Nigeria, the ratio of teenage mothers to women in their 20s who actually die during pregnancy and childbirth is 5:1. In addition, they likely have high infant mortality rates (Amoran, 2012). Teenage pregnancy is a complex phenomenon, which is associated with various economic, educational and behavioural factors, and these problems emerge due to early motherhood (Chalem, Mitsuhiro, Ferri, Barros, Guinsburg and Laranjeira, 2007).

World Health Organization (2014) described the adolescence stage as ‘a period of development and growth which happens after childhood and before adulthood from ages 10 to 19’.It is characterized by a demanding evolution in the genes which is characterized by an immense process in growth and changes in the physical, cognitive, social and emotional maturation. This is a period of transition from childhood to adulthood and a distinct and important biological and social stage of development. This phenomenon is described as a social problem in which adult practices and functions such as sexual intercourse, reproduction and mothering are undertaken by a person who owing to her age and developmental status is not yet an adult (Macleod, 2011). Pregnancy in a girl between ages 10 and 19 years is termed adolescent or teenage pregnancy. Most of these pregnancies are unplanned and/or unwanted because these young females are immature physically and psychologically. The most worrying scenario is the large number of teenage girls who having terminated their pregnancies or given birth become pregnant again within 12 months (Baral, 2004).

Teenagers constitute a high risk group that requires high priority services. Adolescent child bearing is common among the poor and low income teenagers most of whom are unmarried. Teenage mothers seemed to be at high maternal and prenatal risk, therefore it should be discouraged in order to improve adolescent reproductive health (Baral, 2004). Teenage pregnancy and sexual permissiveness seem to be increasing in many countries, thus the responsibility and result of becoming teenage parents need to be discussed with boys and girls because many teenage pregnancies end up in abortion with physiological and emotional complications.

Teenage pregnancy is a common occurrence globally. World Health Organization (WHO) statistics show that about sixteen million adolescents aged 15-19 years give birth each year and most of these births occur in the developing countries (World Health Organization, 2014). Teenage pregnancy constitutes a public health problem and this is grievously affecting the teenagers, the families and society at large. This is because of the early age at which adolescents engage in sexual activity with the result of unplanned pregnancy and the likely complications (Marnach, Forrest and Goldman, 2013). Such pregnancies are risks to both mother and baby (National Population Commission and ICF, 2013). Risks to babies include prematurity, low birth weight and birth injuries. The mother may suffer morbidities such as obstructed labour, obstetric fistula and eclampsia (Marnach, et al, 2013).

Some social and psychological problems are also associated with teenage pregnancy such as dropping out of school, social discrimination and stigmatization. The pregnant teenager might become depressed and thus, at risk of suicide (Marnach, et al, 2013; Telford, 2013). In most cases, the factors influencing teenage pregnancy are mostly domestic, as the child’s domestic or home upbringing goes a long way in shaping the adolescence outside the home. There are some domestic challenges the child is exposed to which predispose her to sexual risk and abuses, and one of such challenges is lack of parental care.

The issue of parental care goes beyond giving the child financial assistance. Most parents feel giving the child financial support is all the child needs as a teenager forgetting the child need attention and social support. The online Oxford dictionary (2019) defined parental care as any behaviour pattern in which a parent invests time or energy in feeding and protecting its offspring. Time spent with children matters a lot but in most cases though, the financial assistance goes a long way in supporting the child’s need and securing the child’s requirements like buying of sanitary. Most adolescents as observed by the researcher could be seen begging money from people around them just to get these needs especially where the parents have failed to make provision for such. It was also observed by the researcher that most of these adolescent girl children are shy to tell their parents, guardian or significant others from what and why they need the money. This could predispose most of these children to sexual initiation from persons of opposite sex especially when it becomes regular. This is closely related to parent-child communication which involves the closeness of the girl child to the parents and it encompasses series of sexual health discussions.

Communication is the sending of information from one person to another. Communication can be verbal and non-verbal (Zolten and Long, 2006). Parents who communicate effectively with their children are more likely to have children who are willing to do what they are told. Such children know what to expect from their parents, and once children know what is expected of them, they are more likely to live up to these expectations. They are also more likely to feel secure in their position in the family, and are thus more likely to be cooperative. Communication between parents and children is not necessarily difficult but requires certain skills, availability, and time. Relationship between parents and children represent some significant communication interactions. Communication between the parent and the child involves more than just simple expression. There is the tendency that parent-child communication may reduce teenage pregnancy if properly adopted. In most cases where these children are not well guided by their parents, they learn more from their peers. This has been observed by the researcher to be a more delicate factor which could cause teenage pregnancy.

Mass media refers to a diverse array of media technologies that reach a large audience via mass communication. The technologies through which this communication takes place include a variety of outlets. Broadcast media transmit information electronically via media such as films, radio, recorded music or television. Experts agree that in considering the role of media and teens’ sexual behaviour, we must reflect on what has been established in the field of violence and the media where there is a clear directional influence on the role of media and violent behaviour/attitudes (Rich and Bar-on, 2001). Simply put, if adolescents can learn aggressive behaviour from television, could they not also be able to learn sexual behaviour? Even though the Internet remains unstudied to date, it is a completely unregulated media source that is rampant with sexual images and sexually explicit content (Rich and Bar-on, 2001).

The prevalence of teenage pregnancy in rural and urban settings seems to be complicated as it could be observed by the researcher that there seems to be no location where it is higher than the other. There are cases too where some teenagers relocate to the villages when they are pregnant to shy away from the embarrassment accrued with it. The researcher also had a suspicion on the high rate of access to media in the urban settings which is far more than it is in the rural settings and if this be the case, there is the possibility that teenagers in the urban locations might be more exposed to sex videos and other immoral activities but having in mind the high rate of poverty in the rural settings, it draws the mind to wonder if it could induce those in the rural locations more to teenage sexual practice. Many rural adolescents face additional challenges that can increase their risk of pregnancy. Economic adversity and lack of access to health services may contribute most significantly to higher rates of rural teen births, according to the National Campaign’s report (2005).

Early adolescence should be a time when children have a safe and clear space to come to terms with this cognitive, emotional, sexual and psychological transformation. Given the social taboos often surrounding puberty, it is particularly important to give early adolescents all the information they need to protect themselves against HIV, other sexually transmitted infections, early pregnancy, sexual violence and exploitation. Upon these societal disturbances, it becomes worrisome to investigate the socio-demographic factors as correlates of tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State.

Review of Literature

The term adolescence is derived from the Latin word ‘adolescere’ which means ‘to grow up’. Thus adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological development that generally occurs during the period from puberty to legal adulthood. According to Nwosu (2005) when pregnancy occurs at the appropriate time and in wedlock, it is a welcome development, but if a teenager engages in pre-marital sex that may result in pregnancy, she is putting herself in a responsibility that she is inadequately prepared for. Teenage pregnancy therefore means conception by girls between the ages of 13 and 19 years.

Parental care is the term used to describe your legal duty to care for your children. If you are a mother, you will automatically be expected to provide care for your biological children. However, if you are a father, you will only usually be expected provide care for your children if you are married to their mother and/or listed on their birth certificates. Parental care is a behavioural and evolutionary strategy adopted by some animals, involving a parental investment being made to the evolutionary fitness of offspring. Patterns of parental care are widespread and highly diverse across the human society (Kokko and Jennions, 2008). Children from parents with good level of parental care are less into sexual practices compared to their counterparts from parents of poor parental care (Olubunna, 2000).

Communication is the sending of information from one person to another. Communication can be verbal, for example, one person talking to another and non-verbal, for example, a scowl on a person's face that will probably let other people know he is angry. Communication can be positive or negative, effective or ineffective. It is very important for parents to be able to communicate openly and effectively with their children. Relationships between parents and their children are greatly improved when there is effective communication taking place. In general, if communication between parents and their children is good, then their relationships are good as well. Children learn how to communicate by watching their parents. If parents communicate openly and effectively, chances are that their children will, too. Good communication skills will benefit children for their entire lives. Studies have shown that there is significant positive relationship between parent-child communication and teenage pregnancy (Owo and Siakpere (2012; Humphrey and Mundi, 2001).

Mass media is defined as those media that are designed to be consumed by large audiences through the agencies of technology (Wakefield, Loken and Hornik, 2010). An array of communication media reaches large numbers of the public, including radio, television, movies, newspapers, and magazines. The Internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer networks that transmits information and services such as electronic mail, online chat, title transfer, interlinked web pages, and other documents of the World Wide Web. Reza (2004) stated that adolescents who had early exposure to sexual activities were more into sexual promiscuity compared to those with late exposure. He also stated further that adolescents with early exposure had a high rate of teenage pregnancy.

Statement of the Problem

The growing problem of teenage pregnancy is no doubt a cause for concern. The rate at which teenagers in Nigeria get pregnant is on the increase. This has become a social problem that need to be addressed as the consequences of teenage pregnancies are enormous and inimical to the education, health, psychological and social wellbeing of every female child; and Delta central senatorial district of Delta state is not an exception to this societal menace among teenage girls. The issue of maternal mortality, abortion, poor academic achievement, hardship on the pregnant teenager and death of the adolescence is even a worst aspect of teenage pregnancy as most of these teenagers indulge in sexual relationship due to ignorance, poverty, sexual exposure, etc. Most parents blame the pregnant teenager where they could have apportioned a major part of the blame to themselves for their failure to give adequate information and proper training and attention to the child. The problem of the study therefore is to investigate socio-demographic factors as correlates of tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta state.

Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of this study is to investigate socio-demographic factors as correlates of tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta state. Specifically, the objectives of this study are;

1. To determine the relationship between parental care and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta state.
2. To examine the relationship between parent-child communication and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta state.
3. To examine the relationship between mass media and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta state.
4. To determine the influence of location on tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta state.

Research Questions

For the purpose of this study, six research questions are used as guide:

1. What is the relationship between parental care and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta state?
2. What is the relationship between parental-child communication and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta state?
3. What is the relationship between mass media and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta state?
4. To what extent does location influence tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta state?

Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.

1. There is no significant relationship between parental care and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta state.
2. There is no significant relationship between parent-child communication and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta state.
3. There is no significant relationship between mass media and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta state.
4. There is no significant influence of location on tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta state.

Methodology

The correlation and ex post facto designs were adopted for the study. The population of the study consists of all female senior secondary school students from all public secondary schools in Ughelli North and Ethiope East Local Government Areas of Delta central senatorial district of Delta State. As at the time of the study, the total number of public female senior secondary schools in Ughelli North was 44 with female students’ population of 13,917 while that of Ethiope East has a total of 23 senior secondary school students with a population of 2971 female students making a total of 16888 female senior secondary school students. A total sample of 825 female students was used for the study. Simple random sampling technique was used to compose the sample. Two instruments were used for the study which Socio-Demographic Factors and Tendency to Teenage Pregnancy Questionnaire (SDFTPQ). The instruments were validated by experts in Guidance and counselling and an expert in Measurement and Evaluation. A reliability coefficient for the parental care subscale was realized at 0.60, parent-child communication at 0.77, mass media at 0.70 and tendency to teenage pregnancy survey at 0.64 were obtained respectively for the instruments using Cronbach alpha. Research questions 1 to 3 were answered using Pearson product moment correlation while research question 4 was answered using mean and standard deviation. Hypotheses 1 to 3 were tested with special p-value for significance of r-values while Hypothesis 4 was tested using independent sample t-test.

RESULTS

Research Question 1: What is the relationship between parental care and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State?

Hypothesis 1: There is no significant relationship between parental care and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State.

Table 1: Pearson product moment correlation of the relationship between parental care and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State.

Parental care	Pearson Correlation	1	.623
	Sig. (2-tailed)		.000
	N	825	825
Tendency to teenage pregnancy	Pearson Correlation	.623	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.000
	N	825	825

 

 

 

 

Table 1 above shows that the correlation between parental care and tendency to teenage pregnancy is 0.62 which indicates a high relationship. For two-tailed test, the observed correlation has probability level (p-value) of .000. The p-value of .000 is less than the chosen 0.05 alpha. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant relationship between parental care and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students is rejected. That is, there is statistically significant relationship between parental care and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State.

 

 

Research Question 2: What is the relationship between parent-child communication and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State?

Hypothesis 2: There is no significant relationship between parent-child communication and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State.

Table 2: Pearson product moment correlation of the relationship between parent-child communication and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State.

Parent-child communication	Pearson Correlation	1	.575
	Sig. (2-tailed)		.001
	N	825	825
Tendency to teenage pregnancy	Pearson Correlation	.575	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.001
	N	825	825

 

 

 

 

From table 2 above shows that the correlation between parent-child communication and tendency to teenage pregnancy is 0.58 which indicates a high relationship. For two-tailed test, the observed correlation has probability level (p-value) of .001. The p-value of .001 is less than the chosen 0.05 alpha. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant relationship between parent-child communication and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students is rejected. That is, there is statistically significant relationship between parent-child communication and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State.

Research Question 4: What is the relationship between mass media and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State?

Hypothesis 4: There is no significant relationship between mass media and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State.

Table 3: Pearson product moment correlation of the relationship between mass media and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State.

Mass media	Pearson Correlation	1	.622
	Sig. (2-tailed)		.001
	N	825	825
Tendency to teenage pregnancy	Pearson Correlation	.622	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	.001
	N	825	825

 

 

 

 

From table 3 above shows that the correlation between mass media and tendency to teenage pregnancy is 0.62 which indicates a high relationship. For two-tailed test, the observed correlation has probability level (p-value) of .001. The p-value of .001 is less than the chosen 0.05 alpha. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant relationship between mass media and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students is rejected. That is, there is statistically significant relationship between mass media and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State.

Research Question 5: To what extent does location influence tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State?

Hypothesis 5: There is no significant influence of location on tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State.

Table 4: Mean and standard deviation of the influence of location and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State.

Location	N	Mean	Std. Deviation
Rural	397	56.90	0.86
Urban	428	66.91	0.74

 

 

 

		F	Sig.	T	df	Sig. (2-tailed)	Mean Difference	Std. Error Difference	95% Confidence Interval of the Difference
									Lower	Upper
VAR00001	Equal variances assumed	399.654	.000	17.936	823	.000	9.03466	.50372	10.02339	8.04594
	Equal variances not assumed			17.565	595.006	.000	9.03466	.51436	10.04484	8.02449

 

Table 4 shows that adolescents that reside in rural locations, were 397 with a mean of 56.90 and a standard deviation of 0.86 while those residing in urban locations are 428 with a mean of 66.91 and a standard deviation of 0.74. These mean values show that urban location has more influence on tendency to teenage pregnancy than rural location. On the other sub table, it could be discerned that (F) 399.654, p-value (sig.) of .000, t ratio of 17.936, degrees of freedom 823, p-value of .000 (Sig. for 2-tailed), mean difference of 9.03466, standard error difference of .50372, lower and upper confidence interval of 10.02339 and 8.04594 respectively at 95% certainty. The p-value of .000 is less than the chosen 0.05 alpha. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant influence of location on tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students is rejected. That is, there is statistically significant influence of location on tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State.

Discussion of findings

The findings of the study are discussed hereunder.

Relationship between parental care and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State. There is positive relationship between parental care and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State and this relationship is significant. This indicates that secondary school students’ tendency to teenage pregnancy is as a result of their parental care. This finding agree with Olubunna (2000) where he stated among others that children from parents with good level of parental care are less into sexual practices compared to their counterparts from parents of poor parental care. Furthermore, this finding agrees with Ba-Itan (2001) where he stated among others that there is a significant positive relationship between teenage pregnancy and parental care.

Relationship between parent-child communication and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State. There is positive relationship between parent-child communication and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State and this relationship is significant. This indicates that secondary school students’ tendency to teenage pregnancy is as a result of the level of parent-child communication they have. This finding is similar to that of Owo and Siakpere (2012) where they stated among others that there is significant positive relationship between parent-child communication and teenage pregnancy. Furthermore, this finding agrees with Humphrey and Mundi (2001) where they stated among others that there is significant positive relationship between teenage pregnancy and parent-child communication.

Relationship between mass media and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State. There is positive relationship between mass media and tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State and this relationship is significant. This indicates that secondary school students’ tendency to teenage pregnancy is as a result of their exposure to mass media. This finding is similar to that of Alabi and Oluwafemi (2017) where they stated among others that media has an influence on teenage pregnancy. Furthermore, this finding also agree with that of Yetunde (2005) where he stated among others that there is significant relationship between mass media and teenage pregnancy as a result of sexual exposure.

Influence of location on tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State. There is significant influence of location on tendency to teenage pregnancy among female secondary school students in Delta central senatorial district of Delta State. This indicates that where an adolescent resides (urban/rural) could determine their tendency to teenage pregnancy. This finding agrees with that of Winika (2001) where he stated among others that children who reside in rural environments are less exposed to sexual activities compared to those in urban environments. It was revealed further that adolescents in rural environments have a higher rate of teenage pregnancy more than those in urban areas. Furthermore, this study has some similarities with of Habitu, Yalew and Bisetegn (2018) where they stated among others that rural residence (AOR=3.93; 95% CI: 1.20, 12.83) was found to have statistically significant associations with teenage pregnancy.

Conclusions

It was concluded that parent-child communication, parental care, peer pressure and mass media all have tendency to teenage pregnancy. It was further concluded that adolescents in urban location have higher tendency to teenage pregnancy than those in rural locations.

Recommendations

From the findings of this study, the under listed recommendations were made:

1. Parents should make effort to provide for their children especially the female child at adolescence.
2. Parents should learn to communicate regularly with their girl child especially on sex related topics and issues.
3. Parents should regulate their children access to use of media appliances.
4. Government should organize seminar or workshop for adolescents on sex education.

 

References

Amoran, E. (2012). A comparative analysis of predictors of teenage pregnancy and its prevention in a rural town in Western Nigeria. International Journal for Equity in Health, 11:37.http://www.equityhealthj.com/content/11/1/37\

Baral, K. P. (2004). Trends of adolescent childbearing in Nepal- lesson and policy implication. Journal Nep Med Assoc. 43: 327-332.

Chalem, E., Mitsuhiro, S. S., Ferri, C. P., Barros, M. C., Guinsburg, R., Laranjeira, R. (2007) Teenage pregnancy: behavioural and socio-demographic profile of an urban Brazilian population. Cad SaúdePública. 23(1):177-86.

Habitu, A.Y, Yalew, A, Bisetegn, A.T. (2018). Prevalence and Factors Associated with Teenage Pregnancy, Northeast Ethiopia, 2017: A Cross-Sectional Study. J. Pregnancy. Nov 1;2018:1714527. doi: 10.1155/2018/1714527. PMID: 30515326; PMCID: PMC6236922.

Jordan, T. S., Marc Oneel C. A. Z., Ben, R. J. S. and Ahrjaynes, B. R. (2016)The phenomenon of teenage pregnancy in the Philippines. European Scientific Journal 12 (32) 1857- 7431

Kokko, H., & Jennions, M. D. (2008). Parental investment, sexual selection and sex ratios. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 21(4), 919-948

Macleod, C. (2011) “Adolescence”, Pregnancy and Abortion: Constructing a Threat of Degeneration. Routledge, New York.

Marnach, E. F., Forrest, J. D and Goldman, N., (2013). Teenage pregnancy in industrialized countries. New Haven Connecticut: Yale University Press.

Nwosu, A. N. (2005). Effects of health education on the reproductive health behavior of in-school adolescent girls in Enugu. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Nigeria, Enugu campus.

Patra, S. (2016). Motherhood in childhood: addressing reproductive health hazards among adolescent married women in India. Reproductive Health, 16.

Reza, Y. (2004). Effect of socio-economic factors on teenage pregnancy among adolescents in Norway. Journal of Adolescent Health Studies. 86; 34-44

Wakefield, M. A., Loken, B., & Hornik, R. C. (2010). Use of mass media campaigns to change health behaviour. The lancet, 376 (9748), 1261-1271.

WHO., (2014). Adolescent pregnancy. WHO Fact Sheet. Geneva: Switzerland.

Zolten, K., & Long, N. (2006). Parent and child communication, Department of Pediatrics. University of Arkons for Medical Sciences Artwork by Scoot Spider. Retrieved from httsps://www.researchgate.net/publication/24860147astudyofparentsparticipation in the high school administration and its effect on school activities

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